The Diamond Certification Laboratory of Australia (DCLA)

The Kimberley Process (KP) is an international certification scheme established to prevent the trade in “blood diamonds,” which are diamonds mined in war zones and sold to finance armed conflict against governments. The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that diamonds are sourced from legitimate, conflict-free origins, and is designed to trace a diamond’s journey from its rough state through to its finished form.

Background and History
The Kimberley Process was established in 2003, following years of efforts to address the issue of conflict diamonds. The trade in blood diamonds was particularly prevalent during the 1990s, when diamonds were being used as a source of funding for rebel groups in countries like Sierra Leone, Angola, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. These diamonds were sold to finance armed conflicts, often at the expense of innocent civilians who were subjected to violence, forced labor, and exploitation.

In response to growing international concern, governments, industry leaders, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) came together to create the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. The scheme aims to prevent diamonds that fund violence from entering the global market, by ensuring that all rough diamonds are certified as conflict-free before they can be traded.

How the Kimberley Process Works
The Kimberley Process works by requiring the certification of all rough diamonds being traded internationally. The certification process ensures that the diamond in question has been sourced from a country that is compliant with the Kimberley Process rules, which prohibit the trade of diamonds that finance conflict.

The key aspects of the Kimberley Process include:

Certification of Origin: Each shipment of rough diamonds must be accompanied by a Kimberley Process certificate that attests that the diamonds come from a conflict-free source. The certificate contains information about the diamond’s country of origin, as well as details about the trading parties involved in the transaction.

International Trade Regulation: The Kimberley Process applies to the international trade of rough diamonds. It requires that all rough diamonds be shipped in secure, tamper-resistant containers and that they are accompanied by the appropriate certificates at every stage of the trade process.

Export and Import Controls: Countries participating in the Kimberley Process are required to implement strict controls over the export and import of rough diamonds. Diamonds that do not have the appropriate Kimberley Process certificate are not allowed to enter international trade.

Monitoring and Compliance: To ensure that participating countries adhere to the Kimberley Process, there are monitoring mechanisms in place. Each participating country is required to report on its compliance with the Kimberley Process rules, and there are provisions for addressing non-compliance, including sanctions or trade restrictions.

Participating Countries and Stakeholders
The Kimberley Process is a voluntary initiative, with over 80 countries currently participating, including diamond-producing countries such as South Africa, Botswana, Russia, and Canada. Key stakeholders in the Kimberley Process include:

Governments: Each participating government is responsible for implementing the Kimberley Process within its own jurisdiction. This includes enacting legislation, establishing regulatory bodies, and ensuring compliance with the certification requirements.

Diamond Industry: Diamond producers, traders, and manufacturers play a critical role in the Kimberley Process. Companies must ensure that the diamonds they trade are conflict-free and that they comply with the certification system. Many diamond industry leaders and organisations, including the World Diamond Council, support the Kimberley Process and encourage ethical business practices within the industry.

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs): NGOs, such as Global Witness, have been instrumental in raising awareness about the issue of conflict diamonds and advocating for strong measures to address the problem. NGOs continue to monitor the Kimberley Process and push for improvements in its effectiveness.

The United Nations: The United Nations (UN) has been involved in supporting the Kimberley Process, particularly in the context of enforcing trade restrictions and sanctions against countries or regions that fail to comply with the certification scheme.

The Impact of the Kimberley Process
The Kimberley Process has had a significant impact on the global diamond trade. By providing a certification system that ensures diamonds are sourced from conflict-free areas, the initiative has helped reduce the flow of blood diamonds into international markets. Some of the key outcomes of the Kimberley Process include:

Reduction in Conflict Diamonds: The Kimberley Process has significantly decreased the number of conflict diamonds entering the market. The system has made it more difficult for diamonds mined in war zones to be traded internationally, thereby cutting off an important source of funding for rebel groups involved in armed conflicts.

Increased Accountability in the Diamond Trade: The certification requirements of the Kimberley Process have improved transparency and accountability in the diamond trade. By tracking the origin of diamonds, the system helps ensure that diamonds are ethically sourced and do not contribute to violence or human rights abuses.

Support for Ethical Practices in the Industry: The Kimberley Process has encouraged the diamond industry to adopt more responsible and sustainable practices. Many companies in the industry now prioritise sourcing diamonds from conflict-free areas and are increasingly committed to maintaining ethical supply chains.

Criticism and Challenges
While the Kimberley Process has achieved significant success, it is not without its critics and challenges. Some of the issues raised include:

Loopholes and Weak Enforcement: Despite its successes, the Kimberley Process has faced criticism for its enforcement mechanisms. There have been concerns about the presence of loopholes that allow diamonds from conflict zones to still enter the market, particularly through illegal or unregulated trade routes.

Limited Scope: The Kimberley Process only covers rough diamonds and does not extend to polished diamonds or diamonds that have been integrated into finished jewellery. This leaves some potential gaps in the supply chain where conflict diamonds could still enter the market.

Conflict Beyond Diamonds: The Kimberley Process only addresses the issue of conflict diamonds, but does not tackle the broader issues of human rights abuses, environmental harm, or unethical practices that can be associated with the diamond trade.

Lack of Effective Monitoring: Some critics argue that the monitoring and verification processes within the Kimberley Process are insufficient and that there is a lack of consistent oversight to ensure full compliance.

The Future of the Kimberley Process
While the Kimberley Process has made important strides in addressing the issue of conflict diamonds, there is ongoing debate about how to improve and strengthen the system. Several key areas for reform include:

Expanding the Scope of Certification: There are calls for expanding the Kimberley Process to include polished diamonds and finished jewellery, as well as addressing other forms of exploitation and unethical practices in the diamond industry.

Improved Monitoring and Enforcement: Strengthening monitoring mechanisms and ensuring better enforcement of the certification rules is crucial to preventing diamonds from conflict zones from entering the market.

Increased Transparency: Increased transparency in the diamond supply chain, including the use of technology to track diamonds from mine to market, can help to further combat the issue of conflict diamonds.

The Kimberley Process remains an important tool in the global effort to ensure that diamonds are sourced ethically and do not contribute to conflict. As the industry evolves, so too will the Kimberley Process, with ongoing efforts to improve its effectiveness and expand its impact on the diamond trade.

Kimberlite is an igneous rock, typically blue or green in colour, from which most diamonds are mined. It is of particular interest in the study of diamonds because it serves as the primary host rock for the formation and occurrence of these precious stones. Kimberlite is found in specific geological structures known as kimberlite pipes, which are deep, vertical fissures or conduits in the Earth’s crust. These pipes were formed by volcanic activity, and they are the main source of natural diamonds that are mined today.

Formation and Composition of Kimberlite
Kimberlite is an ultramafic rock, meaning it contains a high proportion of magnesium and iron, with low silica content. The primary components of kimberlite include:

Olivine: A green mineral that is a common constituent of kimberlite, contributing to its characteristic colour.
Pyroxenes: A group of minerals that also form part of kimberlite’s composition.
Carbonates: Minerals such as calcite and dolomite can be found in kimberlite, sometimes in large quantities.
Clay Minerals and Volcanic Ash: In some cases, kimberlite also contains elements derived from the surface, such as clay minerals or volcanic debris.
Diamond Crystals: Most notably, kimberlite contains diamonds, though the quantity and size of these diamonds vary.
The volcanic activity responsible for the formation of kimberlite pipes involves the eruption of magma from deep within the Earth’s mantle. This magma, under extremely high pressure and temperature, ascends through the Earth’s crust, bringing with it diamonds that formed under similar high-pressure conditions. Kimberlite, upon solidification, traps these diamonds within the rock, where they remain until mining operations bring them to the surface.

Kimberlite Pipes: The Primary Source of Diamonds
The most famous source of diamonds, kimberlite pipes, are vertical geological formations that originate from deep beneath the Earth’s surface. These pipes are often cylindrical in shape, and their formation is associated with ancient volcanic eruptions. As the magma ascends through the Earth’s crust, it forms a narrow, funnel-like conduit. Over millions of years, erosion and weathering can expose kimberlite pipes, allowing diamond mining to occur.

These pipes are typically surrounded by much older and harder rocks, often making it difficult to access the diamonds. The kimberlite itself can also contain other valuable minerals such as garnet, ilmenite, and chromite, but it is the diamonds embedded within the kimberlite that are the primary target of mining efforts.

The Role of Kimberlite in Diamond Mining
Kimberlite plays a crucial role in the discovery and extraction of diamonds. Mining operations often target kimberlite pipes, as they are the most reliable source of diamonds in nature. The process of mining kimberlite involves:

Exploration: Geologists and prospectors search for kimberlite pipes using various techniques such as aerial surveys, satellite imagery, and ground sampling. The distinctive blue or green colour of the rock can also be used as an indicator of its presence.

Extraction: Once a kimberlite pipe is located, it is typically extracted through either open-pit or underground mining techniques. Open-pit mining involves removing large quantities of surface material to reach the kimberlite layer, while underground mining involves digging shafts to reach deeper deposits.

Processing: After kimberlite is extracted, it is crushed and sorted to separate the diamonds from the surrounding rock and other minerals. This is typically done through a combination of mechanical crushing, gravity separation, and sometimes, advanced techniques such as X-ray sorting or dense media separation.

Geological and Geographic Distribution of Kimberlite
Kimberlite is found in specific geographic regions, primarily in ancient cratons—stable areas of the Earth’s crust that have remained relatively undisturbed for billions of years. These regions include:

Africa: The continent is home to several large kimberlite pipes, including the famous Kimberley Mine in South Africa, which has been historically significant for diamond mining.
Russia: Russia contains several diamond-producing kimberlite pipes, particularly in Siberia, with the Yakutia region being a major source of diamonds.
Canada: The discovery of kimberlite pipes in Canada’s Northwest Territories led to the establishment of large-scale diamond mining operations, such as the Ekati and Diavik mines.
Australia: The Argyle Mine in Western Australia, which produces significant quantities of pink and red diamonds, is also a notable source of kimberlite.
While kimberlite pipes are present on all continents, the largest and most significant diamond-producing regions are found in Africa, Russia, and Canada.

Importance and Rarity of Kimberlite Pipes
While kimberlite pipes are the main source of natural diamonds, they are relatively rare. The conditions required for kimberlite formation are very specific, and only a small number of these pipes have been discovered and mined for diamonds. Geologically speaking, kimberlite pipes are often formed in ancient and stable parts of the Earth’s crust, where volcanic activity can reach the depths necessary for diamond formation.

The rarity and difficulty of accessing kimberlite pipes make diamonds sourced from these pipes valuable commodities. The unique geological conditions under which kimberlite forms, combined with the rarity of pipes, contribute to the high value of diamonds that originate from these sources.

Kimberlite vs. Lamproite: Other Sources of Diamonds
While kimberlite is the most well-known source of diamonds, lamproite is another type of volcanic rock that can also host diamonds. Lamproite is less common than kimberlite, but some significant diamond deposits, such as those at the Argyle Mine in Australia, have been discovered in lamproite pipes. However, kimberlite remains the more prominent and studied source of diamonds worldwide.

A knot is a specific type of inclusion found within diamonds. It refers to an included crystal or foreign material that is embedded within the diamond, and in certain cases, it extends all the way to the surface of the stone, disrupting the clarity of the diamond. The knot can sometimes result in a visible raised or burnt area on the diamond’s surface, which may affect both the diamond’s appearance and its overall value.

Formation and Characteristics of a Knot
A knot is formed when a crystal or a foreign material becomes trapped within the diamond during its crystallization process. These inclusions are often caused by other minerals, such as garnet, graphite, or pyrite, which can become incorporated into the diamond’s crystal structure as it forms deep within the Earth’s mantle. These inclusions, when they grow to a size large enough and reach the surface of the diamond, are identified as knots.

The key characteristics of a knot include:

Size: Knots can vary in size, but they are generally larger than many other types of inclusions.
Shape: A knot is often irregularly shaped, with rough edges that can be visible within the diamond.
Visibility: When a knot reaches the surface, it may be visible to the naked eye or under magnification, depending on its size and location.
Effect of a Knot on Diamond Clarity
Inclusions, including knots, are important factors in determining the clarity grade of a diamond. The presence of a knot can significantly reduce a diamond’s clarity, depending on its size, location, and visibility. Since clarity is one of the key factors in diamond grading, knots are generally considered undesirable, especially if they are prominent or affect the overall appearance of the diamond.

The primary impacts of a knot on clarity are:

Lower Clarity Grade: Knots are typically graded as part of the diamond’s clarity assessment. A diamond with a visible knot on the surface may be downgraded in clarity compared to a similar diamond with fewer inclusions or no knots.
Potential for Weakening the Diamond: While knots do not always affect a diamond’s durability, they can sometimes create weak points. If a knot is close to the surface, it may potentially make the diamond more susceptible to damage, such as chipping or cracking.
Visual Appearance of a Knot
When a knot breaks through the surface of the diamond, it can sometimes leave a visible mark, which could be a slightly raised area or a burnt-looking spot. These marks can appear darker or different in texture than the surrounding surface of the diamond. In some cases, knots may appear as small, black or dark spots, particularly if the included crystal is dark or opaque.

Since the surface of a diamond is a key aspect of its overall appearance, the presence of a knot can have an impact on how light interacts with the stone, potentially reducing its brilliance or sparkle. However, in some cases, the knot may be positioned in such a way that it does not significantly affect the diamond’s aesthetic quality.

Impact of Knots on Diamond Value
Knots can reduce a diamond’s market value, as they negatively affect its clarity and appearance. The extent of the impact on value depends on several factors:

Size of the Knot: Larger knots, particularly those visible to the naked eye, will generally result in a more significant reduction in value.
Location of the Knot: Knots located in more visible areas, such as the crown or table, will have a greater impact on the diamond’s appearance and thus its value. Conversely, knots located on the pavilion (bottom) or near the girdle may be less noticeable.
Number of Knots: Diamonds with multiple knots may be valued lower than those with fewer or no inclusions. However, some diamonds may contain one or two small knots that do not significantly affect their overall appearance or value.
Knot vs. Other Inclusions
While a knot is a relatively specific type of inclusion, it is useful to compare it with other types of diamond inclusions:

Crystal: Similar to a knot, a crystal is an inclusion of another mineral within the diamond. However, unlike a knot, a crystal does not necessarily break through the surface of the diamond.
Feather: A feather is another inclusion that can sometimes reach the surface of the diamond. Unlike knots, feathers are typically fissures or cracks in the diamond that may or may not affect the clarity grade.
Needle: A needle inclusion is a thin, elongated inclusion that does not typically reach the surface of the diamond, and thus may not be as impactful as a knot.
Treatment of Knots
In some cases, diamond cutters may attempt to minimise the visual impact of a knot by carefully positioning it or by using techniques like laser drilling to remove or reduce the visibility of inclusions. However, the presence of a knot often cannot be completely eliminated, particularly if the knot is close to the surface.

Additionally, some diamonds with prominent knots may be treated by laser inscription, which may help with traceability but will not alter the presence of the knot itself.